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Powered exoskeleton

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An exhibit of the "Future Soldier" designed by the United States Army

An exoskeleton is a wearable device that augments, enables, assists, or enhances motion, posture, or physical activity through mechanical interaction with (i.e., force applied to) the user’s body.[1]

Other common names for a wearable exoskeleton include exo, exo technology, assistive exoskeleton, and human augmentation exoskeleton. The term exosuit is sometimes used, but typically this refers specifically to a subset of exoskeletons comprised largely of soft materials.[2] The term wearable robot is also sometimes used to refer to an exoskeleton, and this does encompass a subset of exoskeletons; however, not all exoskeletons are robotic in nature. Similarly, some but not all exoskeletons can be categorized as bionic devices.

Exoskeletons are also related to orthoses (also called orthotics). Orthoses are devices such as braces and splints that provide physical support to an injured body part, such as a hand, arm, leg, or foot. The definition of exoskeleton and definition of orthosis are partially overlapping, but there is no formal consensus and there is a bit of a gray area in terms of classifying different devices. Some orthoses, such as motorized orthoses, are generally considered to also be exoskeletons. However, simple orthoses such as braces or splints are generally not considered to be exoskeletons. For some orthoses, experts in the field have differing opinions on whether they are exoskeletons or not.

Exoskeletons are related to, but distinct from, prostheses (also called prosthetics). Prostheses are devices that replace missing biological body parts, such as an arm or a leg. In contrast, exoskeletons assist or enhance existing biological body parts.

Wearable devices or apparel that provide small or negligible amounts of force to the user’s body are not considered to be exoskeletons. For instance, clothing and compression garments would not qualify as exoskeletons, nor would wristwatches or wearable devices that vibrate. Well-established, pre-existing categories of such as shoes or footwear are generally not considered to be exoskeletons; however, gray areas exist, and new devices may be developed that span multiple categories or are difficult to classify.

Purposes

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Steve Jurvetson with a Hybrid Assistive Limb powered exoskeleton suit, commercially available in Japan

Exoskeletons can serve various purposes related to medical, occupational, or recreational uses and are frequently categorized by their general field of use.

Medical exoskeletons

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Medical exoskeletons typically serve one or more purposes, such as:

  • To assist movement or posture for a person with a physical disability or neuromotor impairment
  • To rehabilitate a person after an injury or disorder

Medical exoskeletons have been designed to support people with certain types of physical disabilities or neurological impairments including stroke, spinal cord injury, cerebral palsy, or limb loss.[3] These exoskeletons can target various specific purposes such as to help balance, ambulation, weight-shifting, transference tasks, reaching, grasping, coordination, or other functional movements. For rehabilitation, an exoskeleton may only be used temporarily during a limited period of recovery, after which they may no longer require the device. A rehabilitation exoskeleton can be designed to assist a person with movement impairment, for instance, to help stabilize movement or suppress tremors. Alternatively, an exoskeleton can be designed to resist movement to enhance physical training or to help restore strength. In this case, the exoskeleton is resisting the user in the near-term in order to assist them in recovering strength or capabilities to aid in the longer-term. In either case, exoskeletons can be used to enhance the rehabilitation process by increasing the therapeutic dose (e.g., via increased repetitions or difficulty), constraining exercises to specific movements, reducing the required number of clinicians or clinician effort to provide therapy, or providing assessment of performance through on-board sensing. For assistance, an exoskeleton may be used chronically, intermittently, or only temporarily. Exoskeleton assistance can also be paired with other technologies or modalities, such as functional electrical stimulation (FES) or epidural electrical stimulation (EES).

Occupational exoskeletons

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Occupational exoskeletons have primarily been developed and deployed for the purpose of reducing injuries and fatigue in the workplace.[4] However, occupational exoskeletons may serve various purposes related to improving workplace safety or operations. The most common purposes are:

  • To reduce injury risk, such as musculoskeletal disorders due to overexertion or prolonged postures
  • To increase worker performance (e.g., productivity, quality, endurance) or operational efficiency
  • To reduce worker turnover or enhance recruitment of new workers by improving worker well-being

Military exoskeletons are often viewed as a sub-category of occupational exoskeletons. The term military exoskeleton refers to exoskeletons that are used to support military service members in performing their job duties.[5][6][7] Some military jobs are similar or identical to the equivalent civilian jobs. For example, a military mechanic or logistics worker may experience similar physical demands as a civilian mechanic or logistics worker. However, other jobs are unique to military service, for instance, for tank or artillery crewmembers. Physical demands associated with body armor and load carriage are also often elevated and unique for military relative to civilian jobs. For these reasons, some military exoskeletons have been developed to address military-specific jobs, environments, and challenges.[8][9]

Recreational exoskeletons

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Recreational exoskeletons serve the purpose of helping people to do or enjoy recreational activities, such as walking, hiking, skiing, or sports.[10][11] In this context, an exoskeleton may help a person to do a recreational activity for longer, to do it better, to do it with less strain, pain, or fatigue, or to do a recreational activity that they would otherwise be unable to do without the assistance and support of the exoskeleton. A common goal for recreational exoskeletons is related to healthy aging, in other words, to empower people as they age and undergo natural physical decline to remain physically active and to engage in activities they enjoy. In some cases, recreational exoskeletons may be designed to resist movement to increase muscle strength training by making the movement more challenging. Recreational exoskeletons are sometimes also referred to as sports exoskeletons or consumer exoskeletons. However, some occupational and medical exoskeletons can have uses in non-professional, consumer settings so these categories can blur and some devices can fit into multiple exoskeleton categories. Recreational exoskeletons are a more nascent category (relative to medical and occupational exoskeletons) and their purpose and scope may continue to evolve over time.

Exoskeletons for other purposes

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Exoskeletons have also been designed for other purposes. There are some exoskeletons designed primarily for research or educational purposes, and these are termed research exoskeletons and educational exoskeletons, respectively. Exoskeletons for assistance or muscle training purposes in space may be termed space exoskeletons. While these are somewhat similar to certain medical or occupational exoskeletons, they may not overlap completely. In some cases, a given exoskeleton may fit within multiple categories. As an emerging technology, exoskeleton categories are not rigidly defined. New categories or sub-categories of exoskeletons are gradually being added and refined over time.

Classification

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General model to classify the exoskeletons[12]

Categorisation of powered exoskeletons falls into structure, body part focused on, action, power technology, purpose, and application.[12]

Rigid exoskeletons are those whose structural components attached to the user’s body are made with hard materials such as metals, plastics, fibers, etc. Soft exoskeletons, also called exo-suits, are instead made with materials that allow free movement of the structural components, such as textiles.[12]

The action category describes the type of help the exoskeleton gives the user. Active exoskeletons provide “active” aid to the user, from an external source, without the user needing to apply energy. Passive exoskeletons need the user to perform the movement to work, and merely facilitate it. Hybrid systems provide a mix of active and passive. Powered technologies are further separated into electric, hydraulic, and pneumatic actuators.[12]

The exoskeleton’s purpose is divided into "recovery" exoskeletons used for rehabilitation, and "performance" exoskeletons used for assistance. The application categories includes military use, medical use, including recovery exoskeletons, research use, and industrial use.[12]

Design and current limitations

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Mobility aids are frequently abandoned for lack of usability.[13] Major measures of usability include whether the device reduces the energy consumed during motion, and whether it is safe to use. Some design issues faced by engineers are listed below.

Power supply

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One of the biggest problems facing engineers and designers of powered exoskeletons is the power supply.[14] This is a particular issue if the exoskeleton is intended to be worn "in the field", i.e. outside a context in which the exoskeleton can be tethered to external power sources via power cables, thus having to rely solely on onboard power supply. Battery packs would require frequent replacement or recharging,[14] and may risk explosion due to thermal runaway.[15] According to Sarcos, the company has solved some of these issues related to battery technology, particularly consumption, reducing the amount of power required to operate its Guardian XO to under 500 watts (0.67 hp) and enabling its batteries to be "hot-swapped" without powering down the unit.[16] Internal combustion engine offer high energy output, but problems include exhaust fumes, waste heat and inability to modulate power smoothly,[17] as well as the periodic need to replenish volatile fuels. Hydrogen cells have been used in some prototypes[18] but also suffer from several safety problems.[19]

Skeleton

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Early exoskeletons used inexpensive and easy-to-mold materials such as steel and aluminium alloy. However, steel is heavy and the powered exoskeleton must work harder to overcome its own weight, reducing efficiency. Aluminium alloys are lightweight, but fail through fatigue quickly.[20] Fiberglass, carbon fiber and carbon nanotubes have considerably higher strength per weight.[21] "Soft" exoskeletons that attach motors and control devices to flexible clothing are also under development.[22]

Actuators

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Pneumatic air muscle

Joint actuators also face the challenge of being lightweight, yet powerful. Technologies used include pneumatic activators,[23] hydraulic cylinders,[24] and electronic servomotors.[25] Elastic actuators are being investigated to simulate control of stiffness in human limbs and provide touch perception.[26] The air muscle, a.k.a. braided pneumatic actuator or McKibben air muscle, is also used to enhance tactile feedback.[27]

Joint flexibility

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The flexibility of human anatomy is a design issue for traditional "hard" robots. Several human joints such as the hips and shoulders are ball and socket joints, with the center of rotation inside the body. Since no two individuals are exactly alike, fully mimicking the degrees of freedom of a joint movement is not possible. Instead, the exoskeleton joint is commonly modeled as a series of hinges with one degree of freedom for each axis of rotations.[13]

Spinal flexibility is another challenge since the spine is effectively a stack of limited-motion ball joints. There is no simple combination of external single-axis hinges that can easily match the full range of motion of the human spine. Because accurate alignment is challenging, devices often include the ability to compensate for misalignment with additional degrees of freedom.[28]

Soft exoskeletons bend with the body and address some of these issues.[29]

Power control and modulation

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A successful exoskeleton should assist its user, for example by reducing the energy required to perform a task.[13] Individual variations in the nature, range and force of movements make it difficult for a standardized device to provide the appropriate amount of assistance at the right time. Algorithms to tune control parameters to automatically optimize the energy cost of walking are under development.[30][31] Direct feedback between the human nervous system and motorized prosthetics ("neuro-embodied design") has also been implemented in a few high-profile cases.[32]

Adaptation to user size variations

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Humans exhibit a wide range of physical size differences in both skeletal lengths and limb and torso girth, so exoskeletons must either be adaptable or fitted to individual users. In military applications, it may be possible to address this by requiring the user to be of an approved physical size in order to be issued an exoskeleton. Physical body size restrictions already occur in the military for jobs such as aircraft pilots, due to the problems of fitting seats and controls to very large and very small people.[33] For soft exoskeletons, this is less of a problem.[29]

Health and safety

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Exoskeletons can reduce the stress of manual labor, they may also pose dangers.[34] The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has called for research to address the potential dangers and benefits of the technology, noting potential new risk factors for workers such as lack of mobility to avoid a falling object, and potential falls due to a shift in center of gravity.[35]

As of 2018, the US Occupational Safety and Health Administration has not prepared any safety standards for exoskeletons. The International Organization for Standardization published a safety standard in 2014, and ASTM International was working on standards to be released beginning in 2019.[34]

Products

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  • Japet Exoskeleton is a powered lower-back exoskeleton for work and industry based on established passive braces. It is intended to reduce lumbar pressure.[36]
  • Parker Hannifin's Indego Exoskeleton is an FDA-Cleared, electrically powered support system for legs that helps spinal cord injury patients and stroke patients walk.[37][38]
  • ReWalk features powered hip and knee motion to enable those with lower limb disabilities, including paraplegia as a result of spinal cord injury (SCI), to perform self-initiated standing, walking, and stair ascending and descending.[39] ReStore, a simpler system by the same manufacturer, attaches to a single leg to assist with gait retraining, and was approved by the FDA in 2019.[39]
  • Ekso Bionics's EskoGT is a hydraulically powered exoskeleton system allowing paraplegics to stand and walk with crutches or a walker.[40] It was approved by the FDA in 2019.[41]
  • SuitX's Phoenix is a modular, light and cheap exoskeleton, powered by a battery backpack that allows paraplegics to walk at up to 1.8 kilometres per hour (1.1 mph).[42]
  • Cyberdyne's HAL is a wearable robot that comes in multiple configurations.[43] HAL is currently in use in Japanese and US hospitals and was given global safety certification in 2013.[44][45]
  • Honda's Walking Assist Device is a partial exoskeleton to help those with difficulties walking unsupported. It was given pre-market notification by the FDA in 2019.[46]
  • The European Space Agency has developed a series of ergonomic exoskeletons for robotic teleoperation, including the EXARM, X-Arm-2 and SAM exoskeletons. The target application is telemanipulation of astronaut-like robots, operating in a remote harsh environment.[47]
  • In 2018, Spanish exoskeleton provider Gogoa Mobility was the first European company to get a CE approval for their powered lower body HANK exoskeleton for medical use.[48] The CE approval covered the use of HANK for rehabilitation due to Spinal Cord Injury (SCI), Acquired Brain Damage (ABD) & Neurodegenerative Illnesses. In Feb 2020, their knee specific exoskeleton called Belk also received a CE approval.
  • Roam Robotics produces a soft exoskeleton for skiers and snowboarders.[23]
  • Wandercraft produces Atalante, the first powered exoskeleton to allow users to walk hands-free, unlike most powered medical exoskeleton that require the simultaneous use of crutches.[49]
  • Sarcos has unveiled a full-body, powered exoskeleton, the Guardian XO, which can lift up to 200 pounds (91 kg).[50] Their "Alpha" version was demonstrated at the 2020 Consumer Electronics Show with Delta Air Lines.[51]
  • ExoMed's ExoHeaver is electrically powered exoskeleton, designed for Russian nickel and palladium mining and smelting company in 2018. Designed for lifting and holding loads weighing up to 60 kg (130 lb) and collecting information about the environment using sensors. More than 20 exoskeletons have been tested and are used at the enterprise.[52]
  • Comau introduced a passive spring-loaded exoskeleton called the Comau MATE which provides antigravitational support to the user. The exosuit supports the upper arms and spine to help facilitate work and reduce physical fatigue. MATE’s spring-loaded actuation box stores energy through an advanced mechanism during the extension phase, and then returns it to the user during the flexion phase.[53]

Projects on hold/abandoned

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  • Lockheed Martin's Human Universal Load Carrier (HULC) was abandoned after tests showed that wearing the suit caused users to expend significantly more energy during controlled treadmill walks.[54]
  • The Berkeley Lower Extremity Exoskeleton (BLEEX) consisted of mechanical metal leg braces, a power unit, and a backpack-like frame to carry a heavy load.[55] The technology developed for BLEEX led to SuitX's Phoenix.[56]
  • A project from Ghent University, WALL-X was shown in 2013 to reduce the metabolic cost of normal walking. This result was achieved by optimizing the controls based on the study of the biomechanics of the human-exoskeleton interaction.[57]

Fictional depictions

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Main article: List of films featuring powered exoskeletons

Powered exoskeletons are featured in science fiction books and media as the standard equipment for space marines, miners, astronauts and colonists. The science fiction novel Starship Troopers by Robert A. Heinlein (1959) is credited with introducing the concept of futuristic military armor. Other examples include Tony Stark's Iron Man suit, the robot exoskeleton used by Ellen Ripley to fight the Xenomorph queen in Aliens, in Warhammer 40,000 the Space Marines, among other factions, are known to use different kinds of Power Armour,[58] the Power Armor used in the Fallout video game franchise and the Exoskeleton from S.T.A.L.K.E.R.[59][60][61]

History

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The earliest-known exoskeleton-like device was an apparatus for assisting movement developed in 1890 by Russian engineer Nicholas Yagin. It used energy stored in compressed gas bags to assist in movement, although it was passive and required human power.[62] In 1917, United States inventor Leslie C. Kelley developed what he called a pedomotor, which operated on steam power with artificial ligaments acting in parallel to the wearer's movements.[63] This system was able to supplement human power with external power.

Robert A. Heinlein's 1959 science fiction novel Starship Troopers introduced powered military armor to popular culture, soon followed by Tony Stark's Iron Man suit.

In the 1960s, the first true 'mobile machines' integrated with human movements began to appear. A suit called Hardiman was co-developed by General Electric and the US Armed Forces. The suit was powered by hydraulics and electricity and amplified the wearer's strength by a factor of 25, so that lifting 110 kilograms (240 lb) would feel like lifting 4.5 kilograms (10 lb). A feature called force feedback enabled the wearer to feel the forces and objects being manipulated.

The Hardiman had major limitations, including its 680-kilogram (1,500 lb) weight.[64] It was also designed as a master-slave system: the operator was in a master suit surrounded by the exterior slave suit, which performed work in response to the operator's movements. The response time for the slave suit was slow compared to a suit constructed of a single layer, and bugs caused "violent and uncontrollable motion by the machine" when moving both legs simultaneously.[65] Hardiman's slow walking speed of 0.76 metres per second (2.5 ft/s) further limited practical uses, and the project was not successful.[66]

At about the same time, early active exoskeletons and humanoid robots were developed at the Mihajlo Pupin Institute in Yugoslavia by a team led by Prof. Miomir Vukobratović.[67] Legged locomotion systems were developed first, with the goal of assisting in the rehabilitation of paraplegics. In the course of developing active exoskeletons, the Institute also developed theory to aid in the analysis and control of the human gait. Some of this work informed the development of modern high-performance humanoid robots.[68] In 1972, an active exoskeleton for rehabilitation of paraplegics that was pneumatically powered and electronically programmed was tested at Belgrade Orthopedic Clinic.[68]

In 1985, an engineer at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) proposed an exoskeleton called Pitman, a powered suit of armor for infantrymen.[69] The design included brain-scanning sensors in the helmet and was considered too futuristic; it was never built.[70]

In 1986, an exoskeleton called the Lifesuit was designed by Monty Reed, a US Army Ranger who had broken his back in a parachute accident.[71] While recovering in the hospital, he read Robert Heinlein's science fiction novel Starship Troopers, and Heinlein's description of mobile infantry power suits inspired Reed to design a supportive exoskeleton. In 2001, Reed began working full-time on the project, and in 2005 he wore the 12th prototype in the Saint Patrick's Day Dash foot race in Seattle, Washington.[72] Reed claims to have set the speed record for walking in robot suits by completing the 4.8-kilometre (3 mi) race at an average speed of 4 kilometres per hour (2.5 mph).[73] The Lifesuit prototype 14 can walk 1.6 km (1 mi) on a full charge and lift 92 kg (203 lb) for the wearer.[74]

  • Some exoskeleton models

See also

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References

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